Introduction

One of the most valuable items in avian practice is a reliable formulary. Although pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic data is slowly growing, the vast majority of drug doses in companion parrot medicine rely on extrapolation and/or clinical experience. It is crucial that the clinician have access to this wide range of information and experience.

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Antibiotics

Use of antibiotics should be judicious. Certain clinical presentations clearly suggest an existing infection or the potential for infection such as contaminated wounds, purulent discharge, or malodorous stool. Laboratory data such as leukocytosis, hetorphilia, monocytosis or certain electrophoretic patterns may also support the presence of an infection when clinical signs are vague and non-specific.

Important gram-negative pathogens include E. coli, Enterobacter sp., Klebsiella sp.,Pseudomonas sp., and Proteus sp. Bacterial infections in birds often involve gram-negative bacteria such as, however gram-positive bacteria such as Streptococcus,Staphylococcus, Enterococcus have also been implicated. Therefore it is important to choose a drug with primarily gram negative or broad spectrum activity until culture results are known. Antibiotics frequently used in parrots include sulfa drugs, fluoroquinolones, and higher-generation beta-lactams. If psittacosis is suspected, start doxycycline. Screen the patient and lab results for evidence of dehydration or organ system disease to prevent inappropriate antibiotic selection, and consider the potential for adverse drug reactions. Avoid repeated intramusclar injections to minimize muscle trauma and pain.

Please see How to Select an Antibiotic for more specific advice.

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Anti-inflammatory agents

Birds are very sensitive to the immunosuppressive effects of corticosteroids, and their use is generally not recommended. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents such as meloxicam are selected in many scenarios. Although a far better choice than steroids in birds, this class of drugs also carries certain risks, particularly if the patient is hypotensive or dehydrated. Maintain hydration and monitor the patient carefully.

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Opioids

The opioid agonist-antagonist, butorphanol, is commonly used as a premedication or analgesic in the companion parrot. Raptors appear to respond to butorphanol and buprenorphine, and in these species some sedative effects may also be appreciated.

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Vitamins

Vitamin B complex is recommended both initially and on a daily basis in anorectic or anemic birds. Vitamin A supplementation may be indicated in birds on a seed diet until the diet has been improved. Vitamin D is used to promote calcium absorption, and the administration of vitamin E/selenium has been recommended in select cases. Vitamin K may be indicated with confirmed liver failure, in cases of persistent bleeding, or rodenticide exposure.

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Hypoglycemia

Hypoglycemia is most common in ill juveniles, although this condition may also be seen in septic, liver failure, or extremely cachectic birds.

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Hypocalcemia

Seizures due to hypocalcemia may be seen in African grey parrots and will respond to intravenous or intramuscular calcium. Calcium administration is also frequently indicated in birds with egg binding or dystocia.

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References

Borst GHA, Counotte GHM. Shortfalls using second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides. J Zoo Wildl Med 33(1):85, 2002.

Carpenter JW. Exotic Animal Formulary. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders, 2004.

Flammer K. Antibiotic drug selection in companion birds. Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine 15(3):166-176, 2006.

Flammer K. Enrofloxacin in birds. Proc Western Veterinary Conference, 2003.

Harris DJ. Practical antibiotic selection in avian patients. Atlantic Coast Veterinary Conference, 2001.

Harrison GJ, Lightfoot TL. Clincial Avian Medicine. Palm Beach, FL: Spix Publishing; 2006.

Oglesbee B. Common bacterial infections in pet birds. Proc Western Veterinary Conference; 2003.